Effects of plant- versus animal-based proteins on muscle protein synthesis
A systematic review with meta-analysis
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.51224/SRXIV.526Keywords:
Protein source, resistance exercise, protein synthesis, leucine, vegetal protein, whole food, protein supplementsAbstract
From 2014 to 2020, plant-based proteins rose from the top ten to the top three in global food trends, driven by ethical, health, economic, and environmental concerns. As interest in plant-based diets continues to grow, it is essential to determine whether plant-based proteins can stimulate muscle protein synthesis (MPS) as effectively as animal-based proteins. To investigate this, we conducted a systematic review with meta-analysis using five electronic databases (PubMed, Web of Science, SPORTDiscuss, Cochrane, and Scopus) to identify peer-reviewed studies (randomized controlled trials or non-controlled trials) published up to October 2024, that directly compared the effects of plant- and animal-based proteins on MPS in healthy adults (aged 18–85). Twelve studies met the eligibility criteria. Based on 26 effect sizes from these studies, animal-based proteins showed a modest advantage for fractional synthesis rate (FSR %·h⁻¹), though with a negligible effect size (ESPlant:Animal = 0.004 [95%CrI: -0.002 to 0.011]; p(>0) = 0.899). Based on the imprecision of the pooled effect size estimate and substantial between-study variability, the certainty of evidence favouring animal-based proteins was judged as low. Subanalysis of data indicated that animal-based proteins showed a more pronounced effect on MPS in older adults, whereas younger individuals exhibited similar MPS responses irrespective of protein source. Given the limited confidence in current estimates, future research should prioritize larger, well-powered trials with standardized methodologies to improve the precision and reliability of findings in this area.
Metrics
References
Tipton DK. and Wolfe KR. Exercise, Protein Metabolism and Muscle Growth. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2001; doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.11.1.109.
Witard OC, Bannock L, Tipton KD. Making Sense of Muscle Protein Synthesis: A Focus on Muscle Growth During Resistance Training. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2022; doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.2021-0139.
Simmons E, Fluckey JD, Riechman SE. Cumulative Muscle Protein Synthesis and Protein Intake Requirements. Annu Rev Nutr. 2016; doi: 10.1146/annurev-nutr-071813-105549.
Trommelen J, Betz MW, van Loon LJC. The Muscle Protein Synthetic Response to Meal Ingestion Following Resistance-Type Exercise. Sports Med. 2019; doi: 10.1007/s40279-019-01053-5.
Hodson N, West DWD, Philp A, Burd NA, Moore DR. Molecular regulation of human skeletal muscle protein synthesis in response to exercise and nutrients: A compass for overcoming age-related anabolic resistance. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2019; doi: 10.1152/ajpcell.00209.2019.
Douglas W. and Wilmore MD. Catabolic illness: strategies for enhancing recovery. N Engl J Med. 199; doi: 10.1056/NEJM199109053251005.
Phillips SM, Chevalier S, Leidy HJ. Protein “requirements” beyond the RDA: implications for optimizing health. Applied physiology, nutrition, and metabolism 2016;41:565–72.
Zaromskyte G, Prokopidis K, Ioannidis T, Tipton KD, Witard OC. Evaluating the Leucine Trigger Hypothesis to Explain the Post-prandial Regulation of Muscle Protein Synthesis in Young and Older Adults: A Systematic Review. Front Nutr. 2021; doi: 10.3389/fnut.2021.685165.
Rennie MJ, Bohé J, Wolfe RR. Supplement: Protein Metabolism in Response to Ingestion Pattern and Composition of Proteins Latency, Duration and Dose Response Relationships of Amino Acid Effects on Human Muscle Protein Synthesis. J Nutr. 2002; doi: 10.1093/jn/131.10.3225S.
Li F, Yin Y, Tan B, Kong X, Wu G. Leucine nutrition in animals and humans: MTOR signaling and beyond. Amino Acids. 2011; doi: 10.1007/s00726-011-0983-2.
Lynch CJ, Halle B, Fujii H, Vary TC, Wallin R, Damuni Z, et al. Potential role of leucine metabolism in the leucine-signaling pathway involving mTOR. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2003; doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.00153.2003.
Glynn EL, Fry CS, Drummond MJ, Timmerman KL, Dhanani S, Volpi E, et al. Excess leucine intake enhances muscle anabolic signaling but not net protein anabolism in young men and women. J Nutr. 2010; doi: 10.3945/jn.110.127647.
Børsheim E, Tipton KD, Wolf SE, Wolfe RR. Essential amino acids and muscle protein recovery from resistance exercise. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2002; doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.00466.2001.
Norton LE, Layman DK, Bunpo P, Anthony TG, Brana DV, Garlick PJ. The leucine content of a complete meal directs peak activation but not duration of skeletal muscle protein synthesis and mammalian target of rapamycin signaling in rats. J Nutr. 2009; doi: 10.3945/jn.108.103853.
Abou Sawan S, van Vliet S, West DWD, Beals JW, Paluska SA, Burd NA, et al. Whole egg, but not egg white, ingestion induces mTOR colocalization with the lysosome after resistance exercise. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2018; doi: 10.1152/ajpcell.00225.2018
Moore DR. Maximizing Post-exercise Anabolism: The Case for Relative Protein Intakes. Front Nutr. 2019; doi: 10.3389/fnut.2019.00147.
Estell M, Hughes J, Grafenauer S. Plant Protein and Plant-Based Meat Alternatives: Consumer and Nutrition Professional Attitudes and Perceptions. Sustain 2021; doi: 10.3390/su13031478
McClements DJ, Grossmann L. A brief review of the science behind the design of healthy and sustainable plant-based foods. NPJ Sci Food 2021; doi: 10.1038/s41538-021-00099-y.
Poutanen KS, Kårlund AO, Gómez-Gallego C, Johansson DP, Scheers NM, Marklinder IM, et al. Grains - a major source of sustainable protein for health. Nutr Rev. 2022; doi: 10.1093/nutrit/nuab084.
Ferrari L, Panaite SA, Bertazzo A, Visioli F. Animal- and Plant-Based Protein Sources: A Scoping Review of Human Health Outcomes and Environmental Impact. Nutrients. 2022; doi: 10.3390/nu14235115.
Lonnie M, Johnstone AM. The public health rationale for promoting plant protein as an important part of a sustainable and healthy diet. Nutr Bull. 2020; doi:10.1111/nbu.12453
Jäger R, Kerksick CM, Campbell BI, Cribb PJ, Wells SD, Skwiat TM, et al. International Society of Sports Nutrition Position Stand: protein and exercise. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2017; doi: 10.1186/s12970-017-0177-8.
Langyan S, Yadava P, Khan FN, Dar ZA, Singh R, Kumar A. Sustaining Protein Nutrition Through Plant-Based Foods. Front Nutr. 2022; doi: 10.3389/fnut.2021.772573.
Hoehnel A, Zannini E, Arendt EK. Targeted formulation of plant-based protein-foods: Supporting the food system’s transformation in the context of human health, environmental sustainability and consumer trends. Trends Food Sci Technol. 2022; doi:10.1016/jtifs.2022.08.007.
Page MJ, McKenzie JE, Bossuyt PM, Boutron I, Hoffmann TC, Mulrow CD, et al. The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ. 2021; doi: 10.1136/bmj.n71.
Mendeley Reference Manager v2.94.0. 2023. Available from: https://www.mendeley.com/release-notes-reference-manager/.
Thomas BH, Ciliska D, Dobbins M, Micucci S. A Process for Systematically Reviewing the Literature: Providing the Research Evidence for Public Health Nursing Interventions. Worldviews on Evid Based Nurs. 2004; doi: 10.1111/j.1524-475X.2004.04006.x.
Guyatt GH, Oxman AD, Vist GE, Kunz R, Falck-Ytter Y, Alonso-Coello P, et al. GRADE: an emerging consensus on rating quality of evidence and strength of recommendations. BMJ. 2008;336(7650):924-6. doi: 10.1136/bmj.39489.470347.AD
Morris SB. Estimating effect sizes from pretest-posttest-control group designs. Organ Res Methods. 2008;11(2):364-86. doi: 10.1177/1094428106291059.
Rhodes KM, Turner RM, Higgins JP. Predictive distributions were developed for the extent of heterogeneity in meta-analyses of continuous outcome data. J Clin Epidemiol. 2015;68(1):52-60. doi: 10.1016/j.jclinepi.2014.08.012.
Bürkner P. brms: An R Package for Bayesian Multilevel Models Using Stan. J Stat Softw. 2017;80(1):1-28. doi: 10.18637/jss.v080.i01.
Yang Y, Churchward-Venne TA, Burd NA, Breen L, Tarnopolsky MA, Phillips SM. Myofibrillar protein synthesis following ingestion of soy protein isolate at rest and after resistance exercise in elderly men. Nutr Metab (Lond). 2012 Jun 14;9(1):57. doi: 10.1186/1743-7075-9-57.
Monteyne AJ, Coelho MOC, Porter C, et al. Mycoprotein ingestion stimulates protein synthesis rates to a greater extent than milk protein in rested and exercised skeletal muscle of healthy young men: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr. ;112(2):318-333. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/nqaa092.
Pinckaers PJM, Kouw IWK, Hendriks FK, Van Kranenburg JMX, De Groot LCPGM, Verdijk LB, et al. No differences in muscle protein synthesis rates following ingestion of wheat protein, milk protein, and their protein blend in healthy, young males. Br J Nutr. 2021; doi: 10.1017/S0007114521000635.
Pinckaers PJM, Hendriks FK, Hermans WJH, Goessens JOYPB, Senden JM, Van Kranenburg JMX, et al. Potato Protein Ingestion Increases Muscle Protein Synthesis Rates at Rest and during Recovery from Exercise in Humans. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2022; doi: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000002937.
Pinckaers 49. Pinckaers PJ, Kouw IW, Gorissen SH, Houben LH, Senden JM, Wodzig WK, et al. The Muscle Protein Synthetic Response to the Ingestion of a Plant-Derived Protein Blend Does Not Differ from an Equivalent Amount of Milk Protein in Healthy Young Males. J Nutr. 2023; doi: 10.1093/jn/nxac222.
Pinckaers PJM, Weijzen MEG, Houben LHP, Zorenc AH, Kouw IWK, de Groot LCPGM, et al. The muscle protein synthetic response following corn protein ingestion does not differ from milk protein in healthy, young adults. Amino Acids. 2024; doi: 10.1007/s00726-023-03377-z.
Pinckaers PJM, Smeets JSJ, Kouw IWK, Goessens JPB, Gijsen APB, de Groot LCPGM, et al. Post-prandial muscle protein synthesis rates following the ingestion of pea-derived protein do not differ from ingesting an equivalent amount of milk-derived protein in healthy, young males. Eur J Nutr. 2024; doi: 10.1007/s00394-023-03295-6.
McKendry J, Lowisz CV, Nanthakumar A, MacDonald M, Lim C, Currier BS, Phillips SM. The effects of whey, pea, and collagen protein supplementation beyond the recommended dietary allowance on integrated myofibrillar protein synthetic rates in older males: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2024 Jul;120(1):34-46. doi: 10.1016/j.ajcnut.2024.05.009. Epub 2024 May 16.
Lim C, Janssen TA, Currier BS, Paramanantharajah N, McKendry J, Abou Sawan S, Phillips SM. Muscle protein synthesis in response to plant-based protein isolates with and without added leucine versus whey protein in young men and women. Curr Dev Nutr. 2024 May 10;8(6):103769. doi: 10.1016/j.cdnut.2024.103769. eCollection 2024 Jun.
Van der Heijden I, Monteyne AJ, West S, Morton JP, Langan-Evans C, Hearris MA, Abdelrahman DR, Murton AJ, Stephens FB, Wall BT. Plant protein blend ingestion stimulates postexercise myofibrillar protein synthesis rates equivalently to whey in resistance-trained adults. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2024 Aug 1;56(8):1467-1479. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000003432. Epub 2024 Mar 23.
Gorissen SHM, Horstman AMH, Franssen R, Crombag JJR, Langer H, Bierau J, et al. Ingestion of Wheat Protein Increases In Vivo Muscle Protein Synthesis Rates in Healthy Older Men in a Randomized Trial. J Nutr 2016; doi: 10.3945/jn.116.231340.
Kouw IWK, Pinckaers PJM, Le Bourgot C, Van Kranenburg JMX, Zorenc AH, De Groot LCPGM, et al. Ingestion of an ample amount of meat substitute based upon a lysine-enriched, plant-based protein blend stimulates postprandial muscle protein synthesis to a similar extent as an isonitr
Katsanos CS, Kobayashi H, Sheffield-Moore M, Aarsland A, Wolfe RR. A high proportion of leucine is required for optimal stimulation of the rate of muscle protein synthesis by essential amino acids in the elderly. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2006; doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.00488.2005.
Shad BJ, Thompson JL, Breen L. Endocrine and Metabolic Dysfunction during Aging and Senescence Does the muscle protein synthetic response to exercise and amino acid-based nutrition diminish with advancing age? A systematic review. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2016; doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.00213.2016.
Wall BT, Gorissen SH, Pennings B, Koopman R, Groen BBL, Verdijk LB, et al. Aging is accompanied by a blunted muscle protein synthetic response to protein ingestion. PLoS One. 2015; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0140903
Kim I-Y, Shin Y-A, Schutzler SE, Azhar G, Wolfe RR, Ferrando AA. Quality of meal protein determines anabolic response in older adults. Clin Nutr. 2018; doi: 10.1016/j.clnu.2017.09.025.
Moore DR, Churchward-Venne TA, Witard O, Breen L, Burd NA, Tipton KD, et al. Protein ingestion to stimulate myofibrillar protein synthesis requires greater relative protein intakes in healthy older versus younger men. Journals Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2015; doi: 10.1093/gerona/glu103.
Phillips SM, Paddon-Jones D, Layman DK. Optimizing adult protein intake during catabolic health conditions. Adv Nutr. 2020; doi: 10.1093/advances/nmaa047.
Kramer IF, Verdijk LB, Hamer HM, Verlaan S, Luiking YC, Kouw IWK, et al. Both basal and post-prandial muscle protein synthesis rates, following the ingestion of a leucine-enriched whey protein supplement, are not impaired in sarcopenic older males. Clin Nutr. 2017; doi: 10.1016/j.clnu.2016.09.023.
Kerksick CM, Jagim A, Hagele A, Jäger R. Plant Proteins and Exercise: What Role Can Plant Proteins Have in Promoting Adaptations to Exercise? Nutrients. 2021; doi: 10.3390/nu13061962.
Van Vliet S, Shy EL, Sawan SA, Beals JW, West DWD, Skinner SK, et al. Consumption of whole eggs promotes greater stimulation of postexercise muscle protein synthesis than consumption of isonitrogenous amounts of egg whites in young men. Am J Clin Nutr. 2017; doi: 10.3945/ajcn.117.159855.
Zaromskyte G, Prokopidis K, Ioannidis T, Tipton KD, Witard OC. Evaluating the leucine trigger hypothesis to explain the post-prandial regulation of muscle protein synthesis in young and older adults: a systematic review. Front Nutr; 8:685165. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2021.685165. eCollection 2021.
Churchward-Venne TA, Pinckaers PJM, Smeets JSJ, Peeters WM, Zorenc AH, Schierbeek H, et al. Myofibrillar and Mitochondrial Protein Synthesis Rates Do Not Differ in Young Men Following the Ingestion of Carbohydrate with Milk Protein, Whey, or Micellar Casein after Concurrent Resistance- and Endurance-Type Exercise. J Nutr. 2019; doi: 10.1093/jn/nxy251.
Volek JS, Volk BM, Gómez AL, Kunces LJ, Kupchak BR, Freidenreich DJ, et al. Whey Protein Supplementation During Resistance Training Augments Lean Body Mass. J Am Coll Nutr. 2013; doi: 10.1080/07315724.2013.793580.
Bilsborough S, Mann N. A review of issues of dietary protein intake in humans. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2006;16(2):129–52.
Pennings B, Boirie Y, Senden JMG, Gijsen AP, Kuipers H, Van Loon LJC. Whey protein stimulates postprandial muscle protein accretion more effectively than do casein and casein hydrolysate in older men. Am J Clin Nutr. 2011; doi: 10.3945/ajcn.110.008102.
Hamarsland H, Laahne JAL, Paulsen G, Cotter M, Børsheim E, Raastad T. Native whey induces higher and faster leucinemia than other whey protein supplements and milk: A randomized controlled trial. BMC Nutr. 2017; doi: 10.1186/s40795-017-0131-9.
Mitchell CJ, Della Gatta PA, Petersen AC, Cameron-Smith D, Markworth JF. Soy protein ingestion results in less prolonged p70S6 kinase phosphorylation compared to whey protein after resistance exercise in older men. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2015; doi: 10.1186/s12970-015-0070-2.
Samtiya M, Aluko RE, Dhewa T. Plant food anti-nutritional factors and their reduction strategies: an overview. Food Prod, Process and Nutr. 2020; 10.1186/s43014-020-0020-5.
Nichele S, Phillips SM, Boaventura BCB. Plant-based food patterns to stimulate muscle protein synthesis and support muscle mass in humans: a narrative review. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2022; doi: 10.1139/apnm-2021-0806.
Damas F, Phillips S, Vechin FC, Ugrinowitsch C. A review of resistance training-induced changes in skeletal muscle protein synthesis and their contribution to hypertrophy. Sports Med. 2015 Jun; 45:801-7.
Downloads
Posted
Categories
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Bricia Mendes, Joana Correia, Inês santos, Brad Schoenfeld, Paul Swinton, Goncalo Mendonca (Author)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
