Incidental affective responses to physical effort
a virtual reality study
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.51224/SRXIV.149Keywords:
exercise, emotion, automatic, virtual reality, physical exertionAbstract
The role of affective responses to effort in the regulation of physical activity behavior is widely accepted. Yet, to investigate these affective responses during physical activity, most studies used direct self-reported measures that are prone to biases (e.g., social desirability, ability to introspect). Here, to reduce these biases, we used an indirect self-reported measure (i.e., an affect misattribution procedure) to assess the incidental affective response to effort elicited during a physically active performance in 42 healthy young adults. Specifically, participants rated the pleasantness of neutral human faces presented on a virtual environment while cycling at different levels of physical effort. We used this rating as an indicator of the incidental affective response to effort. Results showed that higher perceived effort was associated with lower pleasantness ratings of neutral faces, with this effect only emerging at moderate-to-high levels of perceived effort. Further analyses showed that higher actual effort was also associated with lower pleasantness ratings of neutral faces. Overall, these findings suggest that higher levels of perceived effort are associated with decreased affective responses during physical activity. These results also provide evidence on the feasibility of capturing affective responses during physical activity without relying on direct self-reported measures.
Metrics
References
Allen, D., & Westerblad, H. (2001). Role of phosphate and calcium stores in muscle fatigue. The Journal of Physiology, 536(3), 657-665.
Barton, K. (2018). MuMIn: Multi-model inference. R package version 1.42.1. https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=MuMIn.
Bates, D., Mächler, M., Bolker, B., & Walker, S. (2014). Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. Journal of Statistical Software, 67(1), 1-48.
Bluemke, M., Brand, R., Schweizer, G., & Kahlert, D. (2010). Exercise might be good for me, but I don’t feel good about it: do automatic associations predict exercise behavior? Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 32(2), 137-153.
Boisgontier, M. P., & Cheval, B. (2016). The anova to mixed model transition. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 68, 1004-1005.
Boisgontier, M. P., & Iversen, M. D. (2020). Physical inactivity: a behavioral disorder in the physical therapist’s scope of practice. Physical Therapy, 100(5), 743-746.
Brand, R., & Ekkekakis, P. (2018). Affective–Reflective Theory of physical inactivity and exercise. German Journal of Exercise and Sport Research, 48(1), 48-58.
Cheval, B., Bacelar, M., Daou, M., Cabral, A., Parma, J., Forestier, C., Orsholits, D., Sander, D., Boisgontier, M., & Miller , M. W. (2020). Higher inhibitory control is required to escape the innate attraction to effort minimization. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 51, 101781.
Cheval, B., & Boisgontier, M. P. (2021). The theory of effort minimization in physical activity. Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews, 49(3), 168-178.
Cheval, B., Cabral, D. A. R., Daou, M., Bacelar, M., Parma, J. O., Forestier, C., Orsholits, D., Maltagliati, S., Sander, D., & Boisgontier, M. P. (2021). Inhibitory control elicited by physical activity and inactivity stimuli: an EEG study. Motivation Science, 7(4), 386-389.
Cheval, B., Daou, M., Cabral, D. A. R., Bacelar, M., Parma, J. O., Forestier, C., Orsholits, D., Sander, D., Boisgontier, M. P., & Miller, M. W. (2020). Higher inhibitory control is required to escape the innate attraction to effort minimization. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 51, 101781.
Cheval, B., Miller, M. W., Orsholits, D., Berry, T., Sander, D., & Boisgontier, M. P. (2020). Physically active individuals look for more: an eye-tracking study of attentional bias. Psychophysiology, 57(6), e13582.
Cheval, B., Radel, R., Neva, J. L., Boyd, L. A., Swinnen, S. P., Sander, D., & Boisgontier, M. P. (2018). Behavioral and neural evidence of the rewarding value of exercise behaviors: a systematic review. Sports Medicine, 48(6), 1389-1404.
Cheval, B., Sarrazin, P., Boisgontier, M. P., & Radel, R. (2017). Temptations toward behaviors minimizing energetic costs (BMEC) automatically activate physical activity goals in successful exercisers. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 30, 110-117.
Cheval, B., Sarrazin, P., Isoard-Gautheur, S., Radel, R., & Friese, M. (2015). Reflective and impulsive processes explain (in)effectiveness of messages promoting physical activity: a randomized controlled trial. Health Psychology, 34(1), 10-19.
Cheval, B., Sarrazin, P., & Pelletier, L. (2014). Impulsive approach tendencies towards physical activity and sedentary behaviors, but not reflective intentions, prospectively predict non-exercise activity thermogenesis. Plos One, 9(12), e115238.
Chevance, G., Héraud, N., Varray, A., & Boiché, J. (2017). Change in explicit and implicit motivation toward physical activity and sedentary behavior in pulmonary rehabilitation and associations with postrehabilitation behaviors. Rehabilitation Psychology, 62(2), 119-129.
Clore, G. L., Gasper, K., & Garvin, E. (2001). Affect as information. Handbook of affect and social cognition, 121-144.
Conroy, D. E., & Berry, T. R. (2017). Automatic affective evaluations of physical activity. Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews, 45(4), 230-237.
Conroy, D. E., Hyde, A. L., Doerksen, S. E., & Ribeiro, N. F. (2010). Implicit attitudes and explicit motivation prospectively predict physical activity. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 39(2), 112-118.
Corneille, O., & Hütter, M. (2020). Implicit? What do you mean? A comprehensive review of the delusive implicitness construct in attitude research. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 24(3), 212-232.
Corneille, O., Mierop, A., Stahl, C., & Hütter, M. (2019). Evidence suggestive of uncontrollable attitude acquisition replicates in an instructions-based evaluative conditioning paradigm: Implications for associative attitude acquisition. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 85, 103841.
Deijen, J. B., Arwert, L. I., Witlox, J., & Drent, M. L. (2005). Differential effect sizes of growth hormone replacement on quality of life, well-being and health status in growth hormone deficient patients: a meta-analysis. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 3(1), 63.
Ekkekakis, P. (2003). Pleasure and displeasure from the body: Perspectives from exercise. Cognition and Emotion, 17(2), 213-239.
Ekkekakis, P., Hall, E. E., & Petruzzello, S. J. (2005). Some like it vigorous: Measuring individual differences in the preference for and tolerance of exercise intensity. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 27(3), 350-374.
Ekkekakis, P., Parfitt, G., & Petruzzello, S. J. (2011). The pleasure and displeasure people feel when they exercise at different intensities. Sports Medicine, 41(8), 641-671.
Ekkekakis, P., Zenko, Z., Ladwig, M. A., & Hartman, M. E. (2018). In D.M. Williams, R.E. Rhodes, & M. Conner (Eds.). Affect as a potential determinant of physical activity and exercise. In O. U. Press (Ed.), Affective determinants of health behavior (pp. 237-261).
Ferdenzi, C., Delplanque, S., Mehu-Blantar, I., Cabral, K. M. D. P., Felicio, M. D., & Sander, D. (2015). The Geneva faces and voices (GEFAV) database. Behavior Research Methods, 47(4), 1110-1121.
Frossard, J., & Renaud, O. (2019). The correlation structure of mixed effects models with crossed random effects in controlled experiments. Preprint at https://arxiv.org/abs/1903.10766.
Green, P., & MacLeod, C. J. (2016). SIMR: an R package for power analysis of generalized linear mixed models by simulation. Methods in Ecology and Evolution, 7(4), 493-498.
Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: the implicit association test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(6), 1464-1480.
Hagura, N., Haggard, P., & Diedrichsen, J. (2017). Perceptual decisions are biased by the cost to act. Elife, 6, e18422.
Hardy, C. J., & Rejeski, W. J. (1989). Not what, but how one feels: the measurement of affect during exercise. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 11(3), 304-317.
Jennett, C., Cox, A. L., Cairns, P., Dhoparee, S., Epps, A., Tijs, T., & Walton, A. (2008). Measuring and defining the experience of immersion in games. International Journal of Human Computer Studies, 66(9), 641-661.
Kindermann, W., Schnabel, A., Schmitt, W., Biro, G., Cassens, J., & Weber, F. (1982). Catecholamines, growth hormone, cortisol, insulin, and sex hormones in anaerobic and aerobic exercise. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology, 49(3), 389-399.
Klein-Flügge, M. C., Kennerley, S. W., Friston, K., & Bestmann, S. (2016). Neural signatures of value comparison in human cingulate cortex during decisions requiring an effort-reward trade-off. Journal of Neuroscience, 36(39), 10002-10015.
Kohl, H. W., Craig, C. L., Lambert, E. V., Inoue, S., Alkandari, J. R., Leetongin, G., Kahlmeier, S., & Lancet Physical Activity Series Working Group. (2012). The pandemic of physical inactivity: global action for public health. The Lancet, 380(9838), 294-305.
Krieglmeyer, R., & Deutsch, R. (2010). Comparing measures of approach-avoidance behaviour: the manikin task vs. two versions of the joystick task. Cognition & Emotion, 24(5), 810-828.
Krumhuber, E. G., Tamarit, L., Roesch, E. B., & Scherer, K. R. (2012). FACSGen 2.0 animation software: generating three-dimensional FACS-valid facial expressions for emotion research. Emotion, 12(2), 351-363.
Krumhuber, E. G., Tamarit, L., Roesch, E. B., & Scherer, K. R. (2012). FACSGen 2.0 animation software: generating three-dimensional FACS-valid facial expressions for emotion research. Emotion, 12(2), 351.
Kuznetsova, A., Brockhoff, P. B., & Christensen, R. H. B. (2015). lmerTest Package: tests in linear mixed effects models. Journal of Statistical Software, 82(13), 1-26.
Lane, R. D. (2008). Neural substrates of implicit and explicit emotional processes: a unifying framework for psychosomatic medicine. Psychosomatic Medicine, 70(2), 214-231.
Lane, R. D., Quinlan, D. M., Schwartz, G. E., Walker, P. A., & Zeitlin, S. B. (1990). The Levels of Emotional Awareness Scale: A cognitive-developmental measure of emotion. Journal of personality assessment, 55(1-2), 124-134.
Lichev, V., Sacher, J., Ihme, K., Rosenberg, N., Quirin, M., Lepsien, J., Pampel, A., Rufer, M., Grabe, H.-J., & Kugel, H. (2015). Automatic emotion processing as a function of trait emotional awareness: an fMRI study. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 10(5), 680-689.
Lishner, D. A., Cooter, A. B., & Zald, D. H. (2008). Addressing measurement limitations in affective rating scales: Development of an empirical valence scale. Cognition and Emotion, 22(1), 180-192.
Luciani, J. (2015). Why 80 Percent of New Year's Resolutions Fail. Retrieved from https://health.usnews.com/health-news/blogs/eat-run/articles/2015-12-29/why-80-percent-of-new-years-resolutions-fail.
Maltagliati, S., Sarrazin, P., Fessler, L., LeBreton, M., & Cheval, B. (submitted). Promoting Health Benefits is Necessary but Insufficient to Favor Physical Activity across the Life-Course: Evidence through the Lens of Decision-Making Sciences.
Mumenthaler, C., & Sander, D. (2012). Social appraisal influences recognition of emotions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102(6), 1118.
Mumenthaler, C., & Sander, D. (2015). Automatic integration of social information in emotion recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 144(2), 392.
Nash, J. C., & Varadhan, R. (2011). Unifying optimization algorithms to aid software system users: optimx for R. Journal of Statistical Software, 43(9), 1-14.
Nelder, J. A., & Mead, R. (1965). A simplex method for function minimization. The Computer Journal, 7(4), 308-313.
Payne, B. K., Cheng, C. M., Govorun, O., & Stewart, B. D. (2005). An inkblot for attitudes: affect misattribution as implicit measurement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89(3), 277-293.
Payne, K., & Lundberg, K. (2014). The affect misattribution procedure: Ten years of evidence on reliability, validity, and mechanisms. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 8(12), 672-686.
Pool, E., Brosch, T., Delplanque, S., & Sander, D. (2016). Attentional bias for positive emotional stimuli: a meta-analytic investigation. Psychological Bulletin, 142, 79-106.
Powell, M. J. (2009). The BOBYQA algorithm for bound constrained optimization without derivatives. Cambridge NA Report NA2009/06, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, 26-46.
Preacher, K. J., Curran, P. J., & Bauer, D. J. (2006). Computational tools for probing interactions in multiple linear regression, multilevel modeling, and latent curve analysis. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 31(4), 437-448.
Prévost, C., Pessiglione, M., Météreau, E., Cléry-Melin, M.-L., & Dreher, J.-C. (2010). Separate valuation subsystems for delay and effort decision costs. Journal of Neuroscience, 30(42), 14080-14090.
R Core Team. (2017). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. https://www.R-project.org/
Rebar, A. L., Ram, N., & Conroy, D. E. (2015). Using the EZ-diffusion model to score a single-category implicit association test of physical activity. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 16(3), 96-105.
Rhodes, R. E., Fiala, B., & Conner, M. (2009). A review and meta-analysis of affective judgments and physical activity in adult populations. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 38(3), 180-204.
Rhodes, R. E., McEwan, D., & Rebar, A. L. (2019). Theories of physical activity behaviour change: A history and synthesis of approaches. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 42, 100-109.
Scherer, K. R., Mortillaro, M., Rotondi, I., Sergi, I., & Trznadel, S. (2018). Appraisal-driven facial actions as building blocks for emotion inference. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 114(3), 358-379.
Stahl, C., Haaf, J., & Corneille, O. (2016). Subliminal evaluative conditioning? Above-chance CS identification may be necessary and insufficient for attitude learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 145(9), 1107-1131.
Svebak, S., & Murgatroyd, S. (1985). Metamotivational dominance: a multimethod validation of reversal theory constructs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48(1), 107-116.
Timme, S., & Brand, R. (2020). Affect and exertion during incremental physical exercise: Examining changes using automated facial action analysis and experiential self-report. Plos One, 15(2), e0228739.
WHO. (2020). WHO guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240015128.
Williams, D. M., & Bohlen, L. C. (2019). Motivation for exercise: reflective desire versus hedonic dread. In M. H. Anshel, S. J. Petruzzello, & E. E. Labbé (Eds.), APA Handbook of Sport and Exercise Psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 363-385). American Psychological Association.
Williams, D. M., Dunsiger, S., Jennings, E. G., & Marcus, B. H. (2012). Does affective valence during and immediately following a 10-min walk predict concurrent and future physical activity? Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 44(1), 43-51.
Downloads
Posted
License
Copyright (c) 2022 Boris Cheval, Silvio Maltagliati, Layan Fessler, Atta Farajzadeh, Sarah Ben Abdallah, François Vogt, Margaux Dubessy, Mael Lacour, Matthew Miller, David Sander, Matthieu Boisgontier
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
